Bibilography

Baker, Mona. 1991. In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation. London and New York: Routledge

Bell, RT. 1991. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London: Longman

Hartono, R. 2009. Teory Penerjemahan (A Handbook for Translators). Semarang: Cipta Prima Nusantara

Hornbby, A.s. 1995. Oxford Advance Learner's Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Larson, Mildred L. 1984. Meaning-Based Translation: A guide to Cross-Language Equivalence. London: University Press of America

Mujiyanto, Yan. 2011. Petunjuk Penulisan Skripsi. Semarang: UNNES Press

Munday, Jeremy (ed). 2009. The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge

Newmark, Peter. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. Oxford: Longman

Venuti, Lawrence (ed). 2000. The Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge

Venuti, Lawrence. 1998. The Scandals of Translation (Towards an Ethics of Difference). London and New York: Routledge

Cheung, Andy. 2013. A History of Twentieth Century Translation Theory and Its Application for Bible Translation. Journal of Translation. Volume 9, Number 1. United Kingdom: SIL International Inc

J. de Regt, Lenard. 2013. Bible Translation and Orality. Journal of Translation. Volume 9, Number 1. Amsterdam: SIL International Inc

W. Cohen Ionnides, Mara. 2013. Translator as Storyteller: A Study of the Book of Esther. Journal of Translation. Volume 9, Number 1. Chicago: SIL International Inc

Werner, Eberhard. 2012. Toward an Ethical Code in Bible Translation Consulting Journal of Translation. Volume 8, Number 1. Germany: SIL International Inc

Harmelink, Bryan. 2012. Lexical Pragmatics and Hermeneutical Issues in the Translation of Key Terms. Journal of Translation. Volume 8, Number 1. Chile: SIL International Inc

Second Language Acquisition (2)

THE NATURE OF LEARNER LANGUAGE

A.     Error and Analysis

Identifying Error

To identify errors we have o compare sentences learners produce with what seem to be the normal or ‘correct’ sentences in the target language which correspond with them. We also need to distinguish errors and mistakes .

1.  Error reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge; they occur because the learner doesn’t know what is correct. For example, the learner consistently say ‘contain’ for ‘contained’.

2.  Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance; they occur because in particular instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows. For example, the learner sometimes say ‘contain’ and sometimes say ‘contained’.

Describing Error

The errors can be describe and classified into types. There are several ways of doing this. They are:

•   Omission
•   Misinformation
•   Misordering

Classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagnose learners’ learning problems at any one stage of their development and to put how changes in error patterns occur over time.

 Explaining Error

The identification and description of error are preliminaries to much more interesting task of trying to explain why they occur. Overgeneralization and omission are the reason of this. It indicates that learners’create’ their own rules.

Error Evaluation

1.   Global Error     : Violate the overall structure of a sentence and for this reason may make it difficult to process,
2.   Local Error       : Affect only a single constituent in the sentence.

B.     Developmental Patterns

The Early Stages of L2 Acquisition

Some L2 learners, particurly if they are children, undergo a Silent Period. They make no attempt to say anything to begin with. They just study through listening to or reading.

1.   There must be a natural order of acquisition that all learners follow.
2.   The order does vary somewhat according to the learners’ first language.

Sequence of Acquisition

            When learners acquire a grammatical structure they do so gradually, moving through a series of stages en route to acquiring the native-speaker rule.

Implication

1.   L2 acquisition is systematic.
2.   To a large extent, universal.
3.   Reflecting ways in which internal cognitive mechanisms control acquisition.
4.   Irrespective of the personal background of learners or the setting in which they learn.

C.     Variability in Learner Language

Linguistic Context

In one context they use one form while in other context they use alternate forms.

Situational Context

Learners are more likely to use the correct target-language forms in formal contexts and non-target forms in informal contexts.

Psycolinguistic Context

Learners have the opportunity to plan their production.

There are three types of this context. They are:

1.   Form-Function Mappings
2.   Free Variation
3.   Fossilization

Second Language Acquisition (1)

Describing and Explaining Second Language Acquisition

A.     Definition

The systematic study of how people acquire a second language is a fairly recent phenomenon. At such a time, there is obvious need to discover more about how second languages are learned. Finally, some researchers define Second Language Acquisition as the study of the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom.

B.     Goals

1.      Description of SLA : To describe how learner language changes over time. For example might be the pronunciation of a second language, how learners’ accents changes over time.

2.      Explanation of SLA            : To identify the external and internal factors that account for why learners acquire a second language in the way they do.

2.1.External Factors

a.       Social Milieu

Social conditions influence the opportunities that learners have to hear and speak the language and the attitudes that they develop towards it.

b.      Input

It is about the input that learners receive that is the samples of language to which a learner is exposed.

2.2.Internal factors

a.       Cognitive mechanism

Learners possess cognitive mechanisms which enable them to extract information about the second language from input.

b.      Knowledge

Learners also possess general knowledge about the world which they can draw on to help them understand second language input. It is possible that learners are equipped with knowledge of how language in general works and that this helps them to learn a particular language.

c.       Communication Strategies

Learners possess communication strategies that can help them make effective use of their second language knowledge.

d.      Language Aptitude

Learning second language will be easier when the learners have natural disposition for learning it.

C.     Methodological Issues

1.      Language is such a complex phenomenon that researchers have generally preferred to focus on some specific aspect rather than the whole of it.

2.      Some researcher defines ‘acquisition’ in terms of whether the learner manifests patterns of language use that are more or less the same of the target language.

3.       The measurement whether ‘acquisition’ has taken place concerns learners’ overuse of linguistic forms.

D.     Issues in the Description of Learner Language

1.      Learners make errors of different kinds. For example, they failed to use request in socially appropriate manner.

2.      Second language learners acquire a large number of formulaic chunks, which they use to perform communicative function that are important to them and which contribute to the fluency of their unplanned speech.

3.      The issue of whether learners acquire the language systematically.

E.      Issues in the Explanation of Second Language Acquisition

1.      Second Language Acquisition must account for both ‘item learning’ and ‘system learning’ and how the two interrelate.

2.      The systematic nature of second language acquisition.

3.      The importance of external as opposed to internal factors.